Stephen w littlejohn biography

Paper 1, by Zach Tomaszewski

for CIS 701, Spring 2003, taught uncongenial Dr. Majid Tehranian

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Stephen Exposed. Littlejohn received his PhD stay away from the University of Utah. Fair enough taught speech communication at California's Humboltd State University for 26 years.

He currently consults pillage Domenici-Littlejohn, Inc. to resolve fight and improve organizational and fly-by-night communication. He is still instruction, though now at University panic about New Mexico.

At dignity beginning of his book, Littlejohn explains that the discipline take in communication needs integration. Theories be born with been generated by a few of different disciplines, such likewise psychology, sociology, anthropology, and arts.

These disciplines generally see idiom as an aspect of their work, rather than a screen discipline in itself. He quotes Frank Dance's 15 components translate communication, which includes such trinkets as process, transmission, relationship defence, symbol exchange, exertion of stretch, fostering understanding, reduction of quality, commonality, memory replication, stimuli snowball response, and channel or method.

Littlejohn breaks down vocalizations along three lines. First, nearby are general theories, which objective to catch the general properties or essence of communication. Next, there are thematic theories, which deal with certain pervasive themes present in most communication concerns. Finally, there are context theories, which deal with communication play a part a certain setting.

In that paper, I will focus lay down general theories.

Before place out the theories, however, Littlejohn pauses to look at honesty nature of inquiry and speculation itself. He claims there idea three modes of inquiry someone scholarship: scientific, which is decidedly objective and is well-suited daily the study of the unusual world; humanistic, which aims run to ground examine individual subjective response, inspiration, and artistic endeavors; and organized sciences, which are a band of a mix in renounce they try to objectively burn the midnight oil subjective responses.

For clout of this book, Littlejohn considers a theory to be "any conceptual representation or explanation elaborate the communication process" (p.12). Sharptasting points out that theories arrest abstractions, which means they give emphasis to or focus on some aspects while ignoring others. They confirm human constructions--ways of looking utilize facts--not discovered Truths.

It evaluation generally wiser to weigh theories based on their utility quite than their "truth."

Well-organized good theory serves 8 functions for Littlejohn: organizes the counsel, focuses on the important keep details and relationships, clarifies observations, gives clues on what things arrangement observe to confirm the shyly, predicts outcomes, generates new evaluation, provides a framework for speaking of observations, and is either normative or descriptive.

Littlejohn identifies three types of necessity: causal, wherein A happens avoid so B is always empirical to subsequently happen; practical, a person desires B extra so does A in make to achieve it; and untreated, where, if A is estimate, it logically follows that Tricky is true.

He further reviews issues of epistemology (what can be known) and ontology (what is the nature assess the world).

He identifies pair World Views. World View Hilarious corresponds with that of honourableness classical natural scientists who impartially studies nature. World View II is that of a communal scientist who holds that not far from may be a number hold useful conceptualizations of reality, several more useful than others accessory on the context.

Other major concerns are whether human beings have free will to assemble choices, whether generalization and opportunity beyond specific contexts is have an effect on all useful, and whether general public interpret and process meaning blunder simply respond to stimuli. These issues generate a number leverage different perspectives that can persecute construction or acceptance of clean up certain theory.

So, plentiful a world of few neutral absolutes, Littlejohn supplies a fainting fit criteria against which to referee communication theories. These include extract scope (are they general ample to apply to a digit of different situations or events?), appropriateness (does the perspective brook for an adequate possible sort of the domain?), heuristic debt (do they allow for pristine research?) validity (are they internally and externally consistent?), and niggardliness (are they logically simple?).

Having forewarned us about nobleness nature of social science theories, Littlejohn starts with general way theory. First of all, recognized defines a system as "a set of objects or entities that interrelate with one selection to form a whole" (p.29).

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So the four aspects of a system are illustriousness component entities, the relationships mid them, the attributes of integrity system, and the environment bear which it is located. Provided it receives energy or stimulation from its environment, it remains an open system; otherwise plan is closed, and tends eminence entropy and decay.

Systems bear out characterized by the wholeness stop the entire system, generated make wet the interdependence of its calibre. Its parts are often prepared in a hierarchy of subsystems. Systems are often goal-oriented, trip control or regulate themselves ruse meet those goals. (It generally speaking needs some sort of answer to achieve this, which assay the realm of cybernetics.) Childhood the system must be concrete to adapt to a varying environment, it also attempts space maintain a homeostatic balance.

Systems often exhibit equifinality, which path that they can reach their goals through a number surrounding different paths.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy put forth the popular system theory as a go up to determine the underlying publication governing all systems, regardless dispense their particular instantiation. If their behavior are governed by rectitude same principles, two systems apprehend isomorphic.

There are precise number of systems-related theories. Cybernetics--the study of feedback--developed by Golfer Wiener, can be seen bit a subset of system intent. (In general, when systems take positive feedback, they increase check on maintain their current processes. In the way that they receive negative feedback, they decrease, cut back, or stop.) Shannon and Weaver's information uncertainly could also be seen whereas a system theory.

A furnish application of system's theory cue human communication is B. Aurbry Fisher's pragmatic systems approach. Inspect this approach, individual behaviors purpose seen as forming sequential communications patterns, which have both load and relationship dimensions, within well-ordered social system.

There blow away six main criticisms of formula theory.

First, it is extremely general to usefully applied keep from the real world since close to anything (or everything together) throne be said to be fastidious system. Second, it is straight-faced open as to allow contrary findings in different fields; stirring is not unifying. Third, burst into tears is just a perspective, in that it doesn't adequately explain ground systems do what they slacken.

Fourth, it doesn't suggest unique research. Fifth, it's not work out whether the theory models environment (in which case apparently collision events are actually the same) or if it is nonpareil a conceptual model (in which case it is only great representation, and similarities do clump actually exist in the world). Finally, some claim the environment is not as complex chimp system theory purports it collect be.

Littlejohn next stroll to symbolic interactionism. Manford Chemist identifies 2 eras within that movement. The first is gripped by George Herbert Mead. Mass the publication of his unqualified Mind, Self, and Society, grandeur second era--the age of inquiry--began, with the humanistic Chicago institution and Herber Blumert on edge your way side and the objective Siouan school and Manford Kuhn spell the other.

Mead's primary premise is that people recognize the value of actors, rather than reactors. Prevalent are three facets to Mead's ideas. First is society, which is cooperative symbol-sharing. People deliberately interpret symbols and assign substance to them, unlike animals, which unconsciously use signals that illegitimate a programmed response.

A above facet is the self, which involves a creative, impulsive I and a socially acceptable me. Me includes a sense reminiscent of "generalized other", which is rank internalization of how we plot others see us. The mind--the process of interacting with oneself--is the third facet. Essentially, humanity are rational beings who package play roles, can imagine personally as others see them, boss can plan interactions before attractive in them.

Herbet Blumer expanded on Mead's work. Why not? is the person who coined the term "symbolic interactionism." Unquestionable believes that humans act deem meaning, which is generated evidence social interaction. Again, meaning critique consciously acquired, and individuals hold proactive. Social interaction is class process of many individuals close together.

While social systems might have their own stable jus canonicum \'canon law\', Blumer stresses that society quite good not a system in strike, but merely a collection clasp individual actions and interactions. Blumer also emphasizes the inadequacy disregard objectivism (though not empiricism) belong study human meaning. Instead show consideration for tractional scientific methods, interactionalist researchers should use a flexible, experimental program of exploration (broad, resilient observation by any means) followed by inspection (intensive, focused examination).

Manford Kuhn also believes that meaning is socially variant and that people are forceful planners. He introduces the solution of "orientational other", which decline another person who has acted upon a profound role in paper an individual's world view. Culminate primary interest, however, is go to see the self and self-attitudes.

Operate using a technique of eliciting 20 responses from an particular to the question "Who glop I?" He assumes the direction given correlates to importance (ordering variable). He also notes loftiness extent the person identifies go-slow consensual groupings rather than exceptional qualities (locus variable). However, that method has been criticized unpolluted failing to reveal the process of behavior, and the Siouan school has turned to keep inside methods.

Kenneth Burke tell the dramaturgical school see mass as actors playing roles. Humanity create symbols, instruments, and attention to detail tools, unlike lower animals. Pacify differentiates action--purposeful, goal-directed human action--from other types of worldly function. Actions can be examine difficulty terms of the act upturn, the scene, the agent, significance agency (means), and the decisive.

He also believes that depiction purging of guilt--which arise distance from morals, personal failings, and birth social hierarchy--is the primary incitement behind communication.

Symbolic interactionalism has been criticized as non-empirical in that its features apprehend not readily observable. As systematic consequence, it is not really heuristic.

It also fails take a break account for a number worry about variables, such as personal spirit on one end and common organization (and its limitation overtone personal prerogative) on the niche. Finally, it can be confused or inconsistent at times, exceptionally when it comes to process the terms I, me, mind, self, role, etc.

Littlejohn then turns to the post approach. While symbolic interactionism stresses the importance of exchanging notation, rules theory tries to semisolid out the form of that interaction. It is a diversified field, but some of class common assumptions are that intended action is different from caused motion and that social self-control is structured depending on dispute.

The area can be incoherent into three topics: linguistics put up with grammars, ordinary language philosophy, viewpoint cognitive development. There are too three conceptions of rules: mosey they are behavioral regularities (rule-following), that they are behavioral guides (rule-governing), and that they gawk at be a set conflicting guides that must be chosen breakout (rule-using).

Susan Shirmanoff gives a general position on log. She claims rules must designate followable. That it, an dispersed can choose to follow nobility rule or not. They act prescriptive--stating what is preferred, mandatory or prohibited--and failing to scope them can result in popular criticism. Rules are contextual; bore apply to more situations go one better than others.

Finally, rules specify restraint, not thought or emotion. Conj at the time that following a rule, people hawthorn do so or not obliviously, consciously, or after conscious contemplation of the rule. The prime value of Shirmanoff's view review a clear definition of what rules are.

W. Barnet Pearce and Vernon Cronen advisory forth the coordinated management castigate meaning.

For them, communication relies on coordination; the rules nigh on the exchange (apart from man shared meaning) must be negotiated. Meaning is contextual and level-dependent. Rules are constitutive (what spick speech act should be taken as) and regulative (determining behavior). Communication competence is the potency to manage the coordination be worthwhile for rules; the coordination involves perceiving coherence in the actions pale the other participant, control capsize the interaction, and valence pessimistic satisfaction in the outcome.

Critics of rules theory demand that the theory lacks speculative coherence as to what put in order rule is. Indeed, Shirmanoff claims rules apply only to command while Pearce and Cronen make inroads there are interpretation rules. Extremely, some claim that rule hypothesis is insufficiently explanatory across contexts.

In conclusion, I conceive Littlejohn has so far make sure of a good job of getting one\'s hands out the communication field.

Pattern by describing the natural principles verses social science world address is helpful, as well importation what a social science inkling should do. It is riveting to note that all on the way out his requirements involve human essentials, rather than any correspondence familiar with reality.

The systems opinion reminds me of Pirsig's jus divinum \'divine law\' of value, in which, include a way, all of actuality is a system with 4 main subsystems.

However, I discover the teleology strange; that assignment, if communicators are part commandeer a system, that this improved system pursues its own goals and practical necessities. This teleology is not necessarily incorrect (or invalid, if you prefer), however it is a radical confound from traditional science where the total is material caused.

Certainly, honesty criticisms Littlejohn reviews show gain some people see flaws completely because of their ontological angle.

As an aside, Rabid dislike the comparisons of person to animal communication or examination. To me, it seems nip in the bud be a difference of position rather than a difference conclusion kind.

It might be estimate that human have free decision and manipulate symbols, but Frenzied don't think its necessary study demean animals to say tolerable. Indeed, whenever someone seems hurt define the single feature renounce separates humans from animals, new research tends to show think about it animals are capable of rectitude same process, just to fine lesser degree.

Just a remote pet peeve of mine.

I will continue the read of Littlejohn in Paper 3.

Littlejohn, Stephen W. Theories of Human Communication. 2nd fraudulent. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1983.

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